Irrigation Organic Fruits

Many growers are able to produce commercial crops of apples and pears on semi-vigorous and vigorous rootstocks without irrigation. However, trees on dwarfing rootstocks (particularly pears), are very sensitive to drought and will perform poorly in years of insufficient soil moisture and excessive competition from a grass sward. In dry years, or where there is competition from the sward, irrigation from mid-May to mid-June may be necessary to achieve good tree growth and again from mid-July to mid- August to improve fruit size in established trees. Irrigation may also be of benefit during dry autumns, to help the trees build reserves for cropping I e following year. Light or shallow soils will benefit from a 'little and often' approach to irrigation. Calculating water requirements of crops is beyond the scope of this book, but there are many companies offering professional advice on the deployment and use of irrigation to meet individual grower requirements.

Should be remedied accordingly. An application of nitrogen will usually be required early in the season before flowering, as soil microbial activity is low at this time due to low soil temperatures. Care should be taken not to over-apply nitrogen during mid-summer or late in the season, as this can lead to fruit let abscission and excessive vegetative growth, which will be disease-prone, together with soft sappy wood that does not lignify properly before winter, thus reducing winter-hardiness. An over-application of nitrogen, whilst often resulting in increased yield, can also lead to deterioration in fruit eating quality and storage potential in apples, although pears are less affected.

Additional nitrogen and potash are often required during the growing season, especially where mulches are not used. However, applying additional fertilizers to trees growing directly in a grass sward may do nothing more than feed the grass, therefore foliar feeds, applied shortly after petal fall while leaves are still young but well developed, are often of benefit. Where trees are growing in a pure grass stand (or where the sward is predominantly grass), the sward should be kept short in order to minimize competition for water and nutrients during critical periods of fruit swelling and ripening. Otherwise, swards containing mixed species such as clovers may be allowed to flower, which will encourage beneficial insects. Keeping the sward under control before harvest will aid picking, although it is often difficult to mow around trees that have heavily laden and drooping branches.

Soil fertility and crop nutrition (together with symptoms of nutrient deficiency) are discussed further in Chapter 2. Full guidance on the satisfactory nutrient ranges for plant nutrients can be obtained from Defra: Fertiliser Recommendations for Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (RB209), Seventh Edition (2000), 'Section 6: Fruit, Vines and Hops'. Although based on conventional production, the figures give a good indication of the optimum levels of nutrients required.

Spur and Tip-Bearing Varieties Fruits Organic

Most varieties of apple and pear are spur bearers, producing most of their fruit on short spurs, which form on older wood. A few varieties, such as Worcester Permian, are tip bearers, producing most of their fruit on the tips of new wood formed the previous season. Varieties such as Bramley and Discovery are partial tip bearers, producing fruits on both spurs and tips. When growing trees from a maiden whip, both tip and spur bearers are started in the same way, but are treated slightly differently from the third year onwards.

TREE FORMS

Commercially, many growers use centre-leader or open-centre (bush) tree forms for apple and pear production. However, a variety of other tree forms exist, including pyramid and spindlebush forms, or variations on these, suitable for trees on dwarfing rootstocks planted at high density. Those on vigorous rootstocks have traditionally been grown as half- standard or standard tree forms.

PRUNING

There are many excellent texts detailing the pruning of apples and pears, and more comprehensive instructions on the general aspects of pruning may be found elsewhere. For simplicity, the main principles of pruning open-centre (bush) and centre-leader tree forms are discussed below, as these systems of training suit most commercial situations for trees on semi-dwarfing rootstocks. They are ideal for organic growers since both methods of training allow good light penetration and airflow around the lives, which helps to discourage diseases such as scab. Such trees are also easy to manage, requiring minimal pruning after establishment.

Apples and pears may be pruned in the same manner for the tree forms outlined below, unless indicated otherwise. Pear trees are usually slower to come into cropping than apples, although, once established, pears can tolerate harder pruning and, unlike apples, will not respond to hard pruning with the production of unwanted suckers or water shoots. Pruning can be carried out at any time during the dormant period after leaf fall (from November to March), but is most easily done in late winter, when the difference between vegetative and fruiting buds is most obvious. Unwanted prunings may be raked up and burned (although a licence is needed from the Environment Agency to burn prunings on your own holding), or else they may be shredded or pulverized and returned to the crop row to provide nutrients, ensuring that diseased material has been removed completely.

These spurs may need thinning out as the branch becomes older. Only limited pruning is required for tip bearers and the majority of shoots formed the previous year, 23cm or less in length, can be left unprunedLonger shoots are spur-pruned (as above) to prevent crowding and to help stimulate the formation of more tip-bearing shoots. Tipping back the branch leaders by three or four buds will also help to promote the production of more tip-bearing laterals. Partial tip-bearing varieties require only light spur pruning.

Artificial hives may be introduced if required Fruit

To achieve good fruit size if over-pollination results in a high fruit set. If in doubt, it is better to provide the maximum number of colonies for pollination rather than the minimum since an overset can always be corrected by thinning and fruit losses to pests and diseases in organic systems are anyway likely to be quite high. In protected cropping, it is important to roll back the covers and open tunnel doors to allow pollinating insects access to the plantation during flowering.

If natural bee numbers are low, and it is not possible to introduce honeybee hives, many bio-control companies now offer artificial bumblebee colonies for both outdoor and protected production. It is now possible to obtain artificial nests for red mason bees to encourage the species into the area. Native red mason bees are very effective pollinators of fruit crops since they forage within a much broader temperature range than honey bees. They also have the advantage of not being susceptible to varroa mite.

 In advance of the orchard or fruit plantation, so that adequate shelter is provided during crop establishment. Most common windbreak species such as poplar, alder and evergreens can be planted in single rows 1.8m apart, although closer spacing of 0.6-1.2m apart may be used where rapid development and maximum shelter is required quickly. The windbreak may later be thinned by removing alternate trees. Single rows of trees are generally less attractive to troublesome bird species such as bullfinches.

As a general rule, windbreaks and shelterbelts should have a permeability of around 50 per cent during the season when protection is required and a good windbreak of moderate density should be able to reduce wind speed over a distance of up to twenty times its height on its leeward side, provided the site is moderately level (the greatest reduction in wind speed occurring at four to eight times the height of the windbreak). Dense windbreaks are undesirable since they restrict the flow of air through the orchard or plantation and, more importantly, can increase the risk of frost damage in certain situations. In most cases, windbreaks sited at right angles to the prevailing south-west wind will provide the best form of protection, although those sited against cold spring winds from the north and east may be more desirable in other situations. Growers should assess their own site carefully in order to decide on windbreak placement to protect their crop at its most sensitive stage. Care should be taken not to site windbreaks where they will assist in the creation of frost pockets — cold air must be allowed to drain freely from the site without impediment. If placement of a windbreak across a sloping site is unavoidable, the base of the trees or bushes should be trimmed to allow cold air to move through effectively so that a frost pocket does not develop.

Bash Fruits Organic

Bush fruits do not compete well with weeds, so crop rows should be kept weed-free if possible during the growing season. The simplest option is to use geotextile and organic mulches (see above). Crops such as blueberries will appreciate regular applications of bark chippings or compost to help maintain a low soil pH. Crop rows can also be lightly forked or hoed and any perennial weeds removed by hand. Mechanical cultivation may also be possible according to plant type and growing system. Cultivations should be no deeper than 5cm to avoid damaging too many surface-feeding soots. This is particularly important for crops such as blackcurrants, which are relatively shallow rooting.

Many strawberry growers use a thick straw mulch for weed control. This should be laid between the beds once flowering is under way, but before the berries have set. If laid any earlier, there is a risk that it can delay soil warming since covering the soil with straw will delay harvest by a week or two and also has the effect of locking up and delaying the release of nitrogen in the spring. Some growers practice 'deep strawing' of established plants of vigorous varieties in their second or third year. This is achieved by applying the straw in February, while soil temperatures are low, to deliberately delay the crop and extend the season. Straw is very effective at suppressing weeds (both in the crop alleyways and within plant rows in the absence of plastic mulch), although large perennial weeds may need to be removed by hand or by flame weeding. Berries and plants are kept clean since there is less rain-splashed soil and dust to contaminate the fruit and the straw is comfortable for pickers. Using straw as a mulch also has the advantage of encouraging earthworms (which are important for breaking down crop debris lying on the soil surface) and consequently improving soil drainage. One of the disadvantages of using straw is that it must be disposed of at the end of the crop's life. Usually, the only practical solution is to incorporate it, although this can take several passes with machinery and can also cause subsequent nutrient lockup as the straw decays.

Mechanical weed control is possible between the rows where the strawberries are planted in single rows without polythene mulch. This can be achieved through the use of brush weeders, finger weeders and rotary or rolling cultivators.

Easily mulched with organic material to suppress weed development, or simply hand-weeded around the base of the canes. Mulching with manure or compost can aggravate Phytophthora root-rot problems on susceptible raspberry varieties growing on heavy and wet day soils, although improving soil drainage and growing plants on raised beds or ridges will help to alleviate the problem. Geotextile mulches such as woven plastic can be used for weed suppression, but must be slit sufficiently to allow the emergence of young primo canes in spring.

IENVIRONMENT STEWARDSHIP ORGANIC FRUIT

Wm' der the new, EU-approved, Rural Development Programme  for England (2007-2013), the old Organic Farming Scheme (OFS), Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS) and the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme have now been replaced by a new agrientrkurffnent  scheme: 'Environment Stewardship'. This new stewardship inhales’ an Entry Level Stewardship (ELS), an Organic Entry Levelwarships  (OELS) and a Higher Level Stewardship (HLS). Of most iimievest to organic producers, the Organic Entry Level Stewardship is gamed to organic and organic /conventional mixed farming systems and &Mews the same format as the old Organic Farming Scheme. It is available assisting organic farmers and land owners, as well as producers entering

Land into conversion, as a five-year agreement, with payments sent out every six months. The OELS is a non-competitive scheme, which means that provided all the requirements (based on a points system) for stewardship have been met, a basic payment rate of £60 per hectare is available for all organic land entered into the scheme. Aid for converting conventionally farmed improved land and established top fruit orchards (planted with pears, plums, cherries and apples, excluding cider apples) is also available as a top-up to OELS payments. This is currently set at £175 per hectare per year for two years for improved land and £600 per hectare per year for three years for established top fruit orchards.

To apply for Organic Entry Level Stewardship, producers must first register their land with an organic certification body. Producers must also demonstrate that they can achieve a certain number of points related to the area of their farm by carrying out specified environmental management options (for example, provision of beetle banks, buffer strips, pollen and nectar mixtures, hedgerow management and so on). These are listed in the OELS handbook (available from Natural England). To qualify for the conversion payments, producers must apply to the OELS within twelve months from the date of registration with an organic certification body. Farmers with both organic and conventional land can apply for OELS on their OELS-eligible land and ELS on the remainder at the applicable ELS payment rates as part of one, whole-farm OELS agreement. If farms are already in the ELS, it will be necessary to cancel the existing ELS agreement, then apply for the OELS.

Weeds In Organic Fruit

ADVICE

Free organic conversion advice is available under a service (the Organic Conversion Information Service or OCIS) provided by Natural England and delivered by the Organic Research Centre — Elm Farm. The service aims to help farmers and land managers in England consider the practical implications of converting their business to organic production. It comprises a national helpline (which will provide initial advice and a comprehensive information pack), a dedicated website and a free on- farm advisory visit service that will supplement the initial advice provided, subject to eligibility. ocisOrganic Centre Wales also runs a technical helpline. Helpline officers can answer questions on organic food and farming and register growers for the Organic Conversion Information Service (OCIS Wales). OCIS Wales.

a free service, funded by the Welsh Assembly Government, and aims to provide farmers with the information they need to make an informed decision about whether to convert. It includes an information pack and up too two on-farm advisory visits from experienced advisers from ADAS and the Organic Advisory Service. The new Farming Connect service (available from September 2008) will pay 50 per cent of the cost of a whole-farm plan (80 per cent if the producer is under forty). For producers in conversion this means it can be used to develop a comprehensive plan to get though the conversion period and beyond. In addition, it will also help to meet the requirements of the organic certification bodies and support applications to the Organic Farming Scheme and other agri-environment scheme such as Tir Cynnal and Tir Gofal.

In Scotland, the Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) operates an organic helpline which is designed to assist Scottish farmers who are interested in angering to organic and to advise farmers who have already converted. I ne telephone advice is also available from local SAC Consultancy Offices and from a number of SAC subject specialists.

In Northern Ireland, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development offers advice on organic production, although the organic Ibenen,g scheme here has recently closed. For information on organic pro4iection in Northern Ireland, contact:OCIS Northern Ireland (Market gardening): 028 9442 6765 OCIS Northern Ireland (Field scale production): 028 9442 6683 www_ruralni.gov.uk/bussys/organic/index.htm

Under the new Environmental Stewardship scheme, organic growers

England and those entering conversion are eligible to apply for payments under the Organic Entry Level Stewardship, run by Defray *le below).

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SWAMP ROSE MALLOW WILD FLOWERS

Also known as Mallow Rose or Wild Cotton, this species is a tall plant with canelike stems reaching a height of six feet. The large ovate leaves are entire except for the lower ones, which may be lobed. The flowers are unusually large, sometimes reaching a diameter of six inches; in color the petals vary from white to cream, with red or crimson bases. Swamp Rose Mallow thrives in brackish as well as freshwater swamps, where the extensive "meadows" of these beautiful flowers make an arresting sight. Swamp Rose Mallow can be found from southern New England to Michigan, southward to Florida and Alabama; the flowers appear in July, and continue blossoming until September.

COMMON MALLOW       

All of the mallows of the genus MaIva found in the United States are European plants which have escaped from cultivation and established themselves near dwellings and along roadsides. The Common Mallow, called Cheeses by children, is a trailing or erect annual with heart-shaped but lobed leaves and flowers clustered in the leaf axils. The calyx of each lower is surrounded by an outer cup of three leaf like bracts; the regular corolla consists of five petals. It can be found throughout the United States, and flowers from June to September. The still more common species, Malva neglecta, has more rounded lobes on its leaves.

MUSK MALLOW    PLATE

This is a larger perennial plant, with stems up to two feet in height; its leaves are conspicuously and deeply lobed into narrow segments. The musk- scented flowers are clustered amid the leaves at the top of the plant. Musk Mallow flowers, essentially similar to those of the other mallows, have petals which are distinctly notched at the apex. Its range is from New England to Maryland, west to Nebraska; the flowers appear in June and July.

MARSHMALLOW

This inhabitant of either freshwater or brackish marshes is also a European immigrant which has made itself at home from Connecticut to Virginia. It is a rank-growing herbaceous perennial with stems up to six feet in height. The ovate leaves are somewhat three-lobed with conspicuous venation. Marshmallow flowers are pink or white, up to two inches in diameter with a number of narrow bracts beneath the calyx. The stamens form the usual column around the pistil and are united with the base of the petals. The flowering period is from July through October. The root of this species was the source of the original mucilaginous_ material known as marshmallow paste.

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