The Plant Horticulture In Context

The many facets of horticulture have much in common, each being concerned with the growing of plants. Despite the wide range of the industry, embracing as it does activities from the preparation of a cricket square to the production of uniformly-sized cucumbers, there are common principles which guide the successful management of the plants involved. This chapter puts the industry, the plant, and ecology into perspective and looks forward to the more detailed explanations of the following chapters.

Horticulture may be described as the practice of growing plants in a relatively intensive manner This contrasts with agriculture which, in most Western European countries, relies on a high level of machinery use over an extensive area of land, consequently involving few people in the production process. However, the boundary between the two is far from clear, especially when considering large-scale vegetable production. Horticulture often involves the manipulation of plant material, e.g. by propagation (see Chapter 6), by changing the above-ground environment (see Chapter 5), or by changing the root environment There is a fundamental difference between production horticulture, whether producing plants themselves or plant products, and service horticulture, i.e. the development and upkeep of gardens and landscape for their amenity, cultural and recreational values. Where the tending of plants for leisure moves from being horticulture to countryside management is another moot point. In contrast, the change associated with replacing plants with alternative materials, as in the creation of artificial playing surfaces, tests what is meant by horticulture in a quite different way.

THE PLANT

There is a feature common to all these aspects of horticulture: the gardener or grower needs to know all the factors which may increase or decrease the plant's growth and development. The main aim of this book is to provide an understanding of how these factors contribute to the ideal performance of the plant in particular circumstances. In most cases this will mean optimum growth, as in the case of a salad crop such as lettuce. However, the aim may equally be restricted growth, as in the production of dwarf chrysanthemum pot plants or in the case of a lawn that requires frequent cutting. The main factors to be considered are summarized in Figure 1.1, which shows where in this book each is discussed.It must be stressed that the incorrect functioning of any one factor may result in undesired plant performance. It should also be understood that factors such as the soil conditions, which affect the underground parts of the plant, are just as important as those such as light, which affect the aerial parts.

A single plant growing in isolation with no competition is as unusual in horticulture as it is in nature. However, specimen plants such as leeks, marrows and potatoes, lovingly reared by enthusiasts looking for prizes in local shows, grow to enormous sizes when freed from competition. 

The Vegetative Plant Organic

The desired growth response. A large amount of hormone can bring about an inhibition of growth rather than promotion. Different organs respond to different concentration ranges; for example, the amount of auxin needed to increase stem growth would inhibit the production of roots. The same principle applies to another group of chemicals important in cell division, the cytokinins, which can be applied to leaf cuttings to increase the incidence of plantlet formation. Both chemicals must be included in a tissue culture medium, at concentrations appropriate to the species and the type of

After the germination of the seed, the plumule establishes a direction of growth due partly to the geotropic and phototropic forces acting on it. Often the terminal bud of the main stem sustains the major growth pattern, while the axillary buds are inhibited in growth to a degree which depends on the species. In tomatoes and chrysanthemums, the lateral shoots will grow out, but are inhibited by a high concentration of auxin which accumulates in these buds. The source of the chemical is the terminal bud which sustains a promotive concentration. Removal of the main shoot, or stopping, takes away the supply to the axillary buds which are then able to grow out to a degree, dependent on the exact concentration retained..

The emergence of the plumule above the growing medium is usually the first occasion that the seedling is subjected to light. This stimulus inhibits the extension growth of the stem so that it becomes thicker and stronger, but the seedling is still very susceptible to attack from pests and damping-off diseases. The leaves unfold and become green in response to light, which enables the seedling to photosynthesize and so support itself. The first leaves to develop, the cotyledons, derive from the seed and may emerge from the testa while still in the soil, as in peach and broad bean (hypogeal germination), or be carried with the testa into the air, where the cotyledons then expand (epigeal germination), e.g. in tomatoes and cherry.The emergence of the plumule above the growing medium is usually the first occasion that the seedling is subjected to light. This stimulus inhibits the extension growth of the stem so that it becomes thicker and stronger, but the seedling is still very susceptible to attack from pests and damping-off diseases. The leaves unfold and become green in response to light, which enables the seedling to photosynthesize and so support itself. The first leaves to develop, the cotyledons, derive from the seed and may emerge from the testa while still in the soil, as in peach and broad bean (hypogeal germination), or be carried with the testa into the air, where the cotyledons then expand (epigeal germination), e.g. in tomatoes and cherry.

Horticulture Plant In Organization

A multicellular organism such as the plant, which carries out many complex processes involved in its growth and development, requires a complex organization to carry out its functions. To be efficient, the plant's structural unit must be sub-divided so that each major function is carried out by a particular area in the plant, i.e. an organ. The individual units of the plant, the cells, are grouped together into tissues of similar cell types, and each tissue contributes to the activities of the whole organ.

PLANT FORM

Most plant species at first sight appear very similar, since all four organs, the root, stem, leaf, and flower, are present in approximately the same form and have the same major functions.

In many species the functions of the root system are to take up water and minerals from the growing medium, and to anchor the plant in the growing medium. Two types of root system are produced; a tap root is a single large root which usually maintains a direction of growth in response to gravity (see geotropism), with many small lateral roots growing from it, e.g. in chrysanthemums, brassicas, dock; a fibrous root system consists of many roots growing out from the base of the stem, as in grasses and groundsel (see page 23 for root structure).

The leaf, consisting of the leaf blade (lamina) and stalk (petiole), carries out photosynthesis, its shape and arrangement on the stem depending on the water and light energy supply in the species' habitat (see page 31 for leaf structure).

The stem's function is physically to support the leaves and the flowers, and to transport water, minerals and food between roots, leaves and flowers. The leaf joins the stem at the node and has in its angle (axil) with the stem an axillary bud, which may grow out to produce a lateral shoot. The distance between one node and the next is termed the internode .Sexual reproduction is carried out in the flower, and therefore its appearance depends principally on the agents of pollination.

Adaptations to habitats such as deserts and forests can be seen in some species such that their organs have evolved to most efficiently survive that environment. Plants adapted to dry areas (xerophytes), e.g. cacti, have leaves reduced to protective spines and stems capable of photosynthesis. Some plants possess leaves modified for climbing in the form of tendrils, as in many members of the Leguminosae family, and Clematis climb by means of a sensitive, elongated leaf stalk. In runner beans and honeysuckle (Lonicera), twining stems wind around other uprights for support. Prickles are specialized outgrowths of the stem which assist the plant in scrambling over other vegetation, as in wild roses, while thorns may have a protective function, e.g. hawthorn (Crataegus). Some insectivorous plants

Organic Growing In Holticulture

By studying the principles of horticulture, one is able to learn how and why plants grow and develop. In. this way, horticulturists are better able to understand the responses of the plant to various conditions, and therefore to perform their function more efficiently. They are able to manipulate the plant so that they achieve their own particular requirements of maximum yield and/or quality at the correct time.

The text therefore introduces the plant in its own right, and explains how a correct naming method is vital for distinguishing one plant from another. The itnernal structure of the plant is studied in relation to the functions performed in order that we canunderstand why the plant takes its particular form.The environment of a plant contains many variable factors, all of which have their effects, mod some of which can dramatically modify growth sod development. It is therefore important to estinguish the effects of these factors in order to have precise control of growth. The environment which surrounds the parts of the plant above the round includes factors such as light, day-length, temperature, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and all of *me must ideally be provided in the correct puportions to achieve the type of growth and development required. The growing medium is the means of providing nutrients, water, air, and usually anchorage for the plants.

In the wild, a plant will interact with other plants, often of different species, and other organisms to aeate a balanced community. Ecology is the study of this balance. In growing plants for our own ends we have created a new type of communitywhich creates problems — problems of competition for the environmental factors between one plant and another of the same species, between the crop plant and a weed, or between the plant and a pest or disease organism. These latter two competitive aspects create the need for crop protection.It is only by identification of these competitive organisms (weeds, pests and diseases) that the horticulturist may select the correct method of control. With the larger pests there is little problem of recognition, but the smaller insects, mites, nematodes, fungi and bacteria are invisible to the naked eye and, in this situation, the grower must rely on the symptoms produced (type of damage). For this reason, the pests are covered under major headings of the organism, whereas the diseases are described under symptoms. Symptoms (other than those caused by an organism) such as frost damage, herbicide damage and mineral deficiencies may be confused with pest or disease damage, and reference is made in the text to this problem. Weeds are broadly identified as perennial or annual problems. References at the end of each chapter encourage students to expand their knowledge of symptoms.

In an understanding of crop protection, the structure and life cycle of the organism must be emphasized in order that specific measures, e.g. chemical control, may be used at the correct time and place to avoid complications such as phytotoxicity, resistant pest production or death of beneficial organisms. For this reason, each weed, pest and disease is described in such a way that control measures follow logically from an understanding of its biology. 

The Plant Horticulture In Context

Bacteria are single-celled organisms sometimes arranged in chains or groups. They are not usually included in plant classification, but have great importance to horticulture by their beneficial activities in the soil, and as causitive organisms of plant diseases.Algae, comprising some 18 000 species, are true plants, since they use chlorophyll to photosynthesize (see Chapter 5). The division Chlorophyta (green algae) contains single-celled organisms which require water for reproduction and can present problems when blocking irrigation lines and clogging water tanks. Marine algal species in Phaeophyta (brown algae) and Rhodophyta (red algae) are multi- cellular, and have leaf-like structures. They include the seaweeds, which accumulate mineral nutrients, and are therefore a useful source of compound fertilizer as a liquid feed.

Fungi, or Mycophyta, are considered to be a division of the plant kingdom with many characteristics of plants, but they do not photosynthesize. They must, therefore, obtain their food directly from other living organisms, possibly causing disease (see Chapter 11), or from dead organic matter, so contributing to its breakdown in the soil. Lichens form the division Lichenes, but their classification is complex since each lichen consists of both fungal and algal parts. Both organisms are mutually beneficial or symbiotic. The significance of lichens to horticulture is not great. Of the 15 000 species, one species is considered a food delicacy in Japan. However, lichens growing on tree bark or walls are very sensitive to atmospheric pollution, particularly to the sulphur dioxide content of the air. Different lichen species can withstand varying levels of sulphur dioxide, and a survey of lichen species can be used to indicate levels of atmospheric pollution in a particular area. Lichens are also used as a natural dye, and can form an important part of the diet of some deer.

Mosses and liverworts. The 25 000 species are included in the division Bryophyta, and have distinctive vegetative and sexual reproductive structures, the latter producing spores which require damp conditions for survival. The low spreadingcarpets of vegetation present a weed problem on the surface of compost in container-grown plants, on capillary benches, and around glazing bars on greenhouse roofs.Ferns and horsetails, in the division Pteridophyta, represent 15 000 species which have identifiable leaf, stem and root organs, but produce spores from the sexual reproduction process. Many species of ferns, e.g. maidenhair fern (Adiantum cuniatum), and some tropical horsetails, are grown for decorative purposes, but the common horsetail (Equiseturn arvense), and bracken (Pteris aquilina) which spread by underground rhizomes, are difficult weeds to control.

Seed-producing plants (Spermatophyta) contain the most highly evolved and structurally complex plants. There are species adapted to most habitats and extremes of environment. Sexual reproduction produces a seed which is a small, embryo plant contained within a protective layer.The class Gymnospermae has approximately 700 surviving species which produce 'naked' seeds, usually in cones, the female organ. This class shows some primitive features, and often displays structural adaptations to reduce water loss (see Figure 4.2). The order Ginkgoales is represented by a single surviving species, the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), which has an unusual slit-leaf shape, and yellow colour in autumn. The most important order to horticulture, the conifers (Coniferales), provides many families with horticulturally interesting plant habits, and foliage shape and colors. The Cupressaceae, for example, include fast-growing species which can be used as windbreaks, and small, slow-growing types very useful for rock gardens. Taxaceae, a highly poisonous family, contains the common yew (Taxus baccata) used in ornamental hedges and mazes.

Trees As Well As Soft Fruits

 It may be possible to take advantage of seasonal markets, such as Christmas trees, as well as soft fruits, either by providing the produce from the farm, or by buying in. It may also be possible to run a box scheme (see below) in conjunction with the farm shop. Growers may find it worthwhile buying some crops that are available cheaper on the wholesale market than they can produce, especially if they can work collaboratively with other local growers. Produce reaching the consumer must be fresh and harvested according to demand — this is particularly important for soft fruit.

Farmers' Markets

There are more than 500 markets countrywide, with a concentration in the south-west and south-east of England, as well as a dedicated organic market in north London. The Soil Association has estimated the proportion of organic food sold through farmers' markets at 15 per cent. The idea behind farmers' markets is to provide local small-scale producers and processors with a forum through which to sell direct to the consumer and contribute to the local economy. This saves the expense and risk of setting up a farm shop. For the consumer, farmers' markets offer direct contact with producers, and thus traceability, combined with a normally more relaxed shopping experience. Producers, in turn, get valuable feedback from their customers. With the increase in market numbers it is possible for individual producers to attend a substantial number of different markets. However, a farmers' market will only work if the producer enjoys selling to the public and has the time to do so.

The National Association of Farmers' Markets (NAFM) was established in 2002 to monitor and guide the conduct of these markets. In order to be a member of the NAFM the market must adhere to certain criteria. The main factors that affect producers are:

Box Schemes

Box schemes are one of the fastest growing methods of direct marketing for organic growers. There are several hundred now operating in the UK, ranging from supplying fewer than 100 boxes a week to supplying over 4,000. As the total volume sold through box schemes is still small, but increasing, there are substantial opportunities for expansion. As a benchmark, about 100 boxes a week requires one full-time worker and a part- time assistant. About sixty boxes can be produced per hectare from a mixed vegetable and fruit production system.

Box schemes have proved to be a simple and effective method of marketing and distributing organic vegetables for many growers. 

Organic Care of Young Vines Fruit

As the shoots emerge from the rabbit-protection sleeves, they will need tying to the bamboo cane to stop them flopping over. There will invariably be several shoots that grow. In about June this should be reduced to one by saving the straightest and breaking off all surplus shoots at their base. The one that is left will develop into the trunk of the vine — if it grows sufficient length and thickness during the first year. If it does not, then the vine will need to be pruned right back to the graft during the first winter and a stronger shoot grown in the second year to form the trunk. To create a trunk that will last and perform well over twenty-five or more years requires minimal branching. In other words, if the vine requires pruning back to the graft, during the first winter, it is necessary to cut back severely — just below the first visible bud, so that the new shoot that grows the following year comes directly from the axial (invisible) bud and not from the new shoot that grew after the vine was planted.

Many experts recommend cutting every young vine back to the graft during the first winter. The only time this would not be necessary is if the vine produces a cane of at least pencil thickness and of at least the desired trunk height plus three buds for the chosen training system. In this case, during the first winter this cane would be cut at three buds above the height of the proposed trunk (Guyot system).

Rabbit Protection

Once mulch has been laid, the wires should be reattached to the end posts at a height of about 1 metre and intermediary posts banged in about every fifty to sixty vines for additional support. Each vine then needs a bamboo cane and (unless the site is secured against rabbits by a fence) some kind of rabbit protection or guard. This can be cylindrical netting, polythene or plastic sleeve and needs to be at least 45-50cm long, as rabbits will get up on their hind legs to eat the top of the vine as it emerges from the guard if it is not long enough to prevent this.

Organic Canopy Management Fruit

The term 'canopy management' refers to the training and organizing of the green shoots and leaves during the summer. Most training systems will require some handwork doing shoot positioning and deleafing around the bunches during the growing season. In addition, the green shoots will need cutting just above the height of the top wire 'topping' in late summer to prevent them becoming too long and then flopping over and shading the grapes.

The world's leading expert on canopy management, the Australian Richard Smart, whom I had the privilege to hear speak at the Thames Valley Vineyard in about 1990, wrote a book called Sunlight into Wine. This title neatly a sum up the objectives of the vine grower, whose task it is to ensure that the leaves of the vine capture sufficient energy from the sunlight to develop and ripen an adequate crop of fruit. To achieve this, it is important to have a good leaf to fruit ratio. Too much fruit and not enough leaves will mean the fruit will not ripen. Too many leaves and not enough fruit means too little yield.

Through his experimentation, Smart discovered that 80 per cent of the sunlight falling directly onto a leaf is absorbed by that leaf. A leaf situated in the shade behind that leaf will absorb less than 10 per cent of the remaining light and a leaf behind two leaves will, as far as the vine is concerned, be virtually 'in the dark'. It is clear therefore, that to achieve maximum photosynthesis of light energy the canopy of the vine should be open and airy and not congested or dense. From the point of view of disease prevention it is also important to achieve an 'open' canopy. Powdery mildew, in particular, will develop and thrive in 'leaf balls', which are dense, compacted areas of the canopy. In addition, spray droplets will not penetrate inside such canopies. I have seen some dense canopies on a Geneva double curtain system where the leaves were white through lack of light and the grapes were full of botrytis because of poor ventilation.

Each cane needs about ten to twelve leaves in order to ripen properly the two to three bunches of grapes growing on it. This means it needs to be about a metre or so in length. Once it has reached this length it can be 'topped'. This will encourage side shoots to develop — their young leaves are very useful in increasing the sugar levels in the ripening grapes. Once the grapes have developed to small pea size, one or two of the older leaves around.

For vines that are cut back to the graft during the first winter, and where a low or intermediate height training system is chosen, then two canes can be left to grow during the second summer. In the following winter the straightest of these is chosen to form the trunk and cut to the appropriate height (three buds above the height of the proposed trunk — Guyot system). The other cane can be tied onto the wire to produce the first fruit during the third summer. This cane will then be removed at the graft during the third year's pruning and the two canes that grew from the two buds at the top of the trunk trained to provide fruit in the fourth year.

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Planting Material Grafted Vines Fruit

Commercial vines are created by vine breeders on the Continent and are always supplied as 'grafted' vines. At the time of writing, there are no suppliers of organically certified vine plants, although there are some vine breeders in Germany trialling organic reproductive methods. At present, it is necessary to obtain special derogation from an organic certifying organization, before buying non-organic vines. Only the top 2.5-5cm of the plant has the good wine quality Vitis vinifera buds. The lower 20-25cm is known as the rootstock. When planting, it is therefore important that the graft union is above soil level, otherwise the plant will try to send out roots from the Vitis vinifera part.

Young vines are grafted in this way to minimize the risk of the vine pest Phylloxera that eats the roots of Vitis vinifera vines but does not seem to like the American rootstocks. This vine pest was responsible for widespread vineyard damage in France and elsewhere during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, until grafting techniques were employed. If you are prepared to risk the appearance of Phylloxera you can grow vines from cuttings. If, however, this pest does move in, you will be required to notify the Government authorities who have the power to make the owner destroy the vineyard and eradicate the pest! Nevertheless, it is not illegal and vines can be grown very successfully from cuttings, assuming of course that you can get hold of the desired variety in the desired quantity.

Vine varieties also differ in their susceptibility to botrytis (grey mould), which can infect the grapes in September and October as they are ripening, particularly in damp or wet weather. One of the best organic methods of prevention is to pick off a few leaves in the grape zone to expose the bunches to air and sunlight so that they dry out quickly after rain or overnight dew, thus preventing the botrytis spores from taking hold.

Gooseberries Organic Fruit

Gooseberries are grown on a small scale in the UK for the fresh fruit market and PYO. Similarly to redcurrants, most of the fruit used for processing is imported from other European countries. American gooseberry mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae) is the main problem in cultivation and is one of the reasons behind the decline in gooseberry hectarage in the UK over the past few decades. Gooseberries are the earliest of the soft fruits to ripen and can be harvested from mid-June until late July, according to their use as either culinary or dessert fruits. Dessert varieties will benefit from thinning in late May/early June to achieve good fruit size. They should be thinned to about 2.5cm apart (one berry per cluster), when risk of cold spring run-off is past. The thinnings can be used in cooking. Yields can vary widely with variety and location, but will normally be between 4-5kg per bush. In contrast to currants, gooseberries are easy to pick (provided bushes are not too thorny). Optimum production is not usually reached until the bushes are well established - normally six years after planting.

Gooseberries are derived mostly from two species — American and European. European gooseberry fruits come in a range of colors, from green, white, yellow or pink to red, and are generally larger fruited than their American cousins. They are the preferred choice for cookery and dessert use. American gooseberry fruits are perfectly round and pink-red when fully ripe. The bushes are more productive. However, they are generally of inferior quality for both cooking and eating in comparison to the European cultivars. The worcesterberry can be grown as an alternative where conditions for gooseberries are less than ideal, or where pests and diseases are troublesome.

Whitecurrant Varieties In Organic

White Versailles Season: early to mid-July. The most widely available variety from nurseries. Upright habit, but not particularly vigorous. Produces high yields of large-sized, pale yellow berries on long trusses. A reliable cropper.

White Grape Season: mid-July. Upright habit. Moderately vigorous. Produces good crops of very well-flavored, off-white, large berries. Yields tend to be lower than White Versailles.

White Dutch Season: late July. Spreading habit. Moderately vigorous. The heaviest cropping variety, producing long trusses of creamy-coloured fruits. Berry flavor is not as good as other varieties.

White Pearl Season: late July. Upright habit. Moderately vigorous. Produces heavy crops of large, well-flavoured berries borne on long strigs. Berries are more transparent than other varieties.

PINK CURRANTS

These are occasionally offered by nurseries and are a good investment where punnets of mixed berries are to be sold (such as in farmers' markets and box schemes), as they are something of a novelty and popular with consumers. Pink currants are intermediate between red and white types - the berries have a pink flesh and colorless skin and are generally sweeter in taste than redcurrants. Gloire des Sablons is the most common variety available and can usually be purchased from Continental nurseries. Other varieties include Jules, Pink Champagne and Rosasport. Cultivation is the same as that for redcurrants and whitecurrants.

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Summer Pruning of Cordons Organic Fruit

The pruning of laterals (side shoots) can be done each year just before harvest. This will expose fruit to pickers and discourage mildew and botrytis, as well as stimulating the production of fruiting spurs on the shortened laterals. Leader pruning should be carried out during winter.

Cordons
Redcurrants, whitecurrants and gooseberries can also be grown as cordons. This is a popular method of growing redcurrants on the Continent and is well suited to PYO systems due to tighter spacing and easier harvesting. Fruit is very well presented to pickers, yields are high (about 0.5-1kg per bush from a single cordon) and it is easier to spot andintercept pest and disease problems at an early stage. Berries generally ripen better since they are more exposed to the sunshine and are kept off the ground and away from rain-splashed soil. Cordons also allow very good air circulation around the plant, which helps to prevent mildew.
Cordons are particularly suitable for managing vigorous cultivars such as the gooseberries Invicta and Leveller. However, cordons do require more time spent pruning and tying in, and a supporting framework will need to be provided. A tier of wires spaced 30cm apart, with the top wire set 1.5-1.8m from the ground, should be used. Strong-growing varieties are suitable for training as double or even triple cordons.

Raspberry Cane Midge In Organic Fruit

Raspberry cane midge is a widespread and common pest that often causes serious problems in raspberry and also occasionally attacks loganberry. Adult midges are 1.5-2.5mm long and red-green in color. They emerge in early May and lay eggs in the splits on young raspberry canes. Eggs hatch one week later and the larvae feed for two to three weeks in large clusters underneath the cane rind. Larvae are 3-3.5mm long, initially pale in color but later turning salmon-pink, making them visible under the bark of attacked stems. Once mature, they drop to the ground to pupate in red silken cocoons, emerging as adults two to three weeks later. There are usually three generations each year. The larvae of the final September generation over- winter in cocoons in the soil and pupate the following spring.

The main problem is that the midge larvae open up the cane to infection by fungal pathogens such as Did ymella, Fusarium and Leptosphaeria, which cause the disease midge blight, leading to the death of fruiting canes the following year. Midge larvae feeding for several generations may also cause such severe damage to vascular tissue that the affected canes become prone to winter cold injury.

Outdoor cropping, it is most useful near to harvest when field temperatures are more appropriate. Unfortunately, there is no straightforward biological control solution for the large raspberry aphid.

Chemical Control

Pyrethrum, insecticidal soap or natural plant extracts may be used before or after flowering. Their use is best restricted to spot treatments of small colonies early in the season. Sprays applied post-harvest or in the autumn (late September to mid-October) can also give good control, before egg laying commences.

Organic Aphids In Cane Fruit

Avoid establishing plantations near woods or hedges. Woody hosts such as wild hawthorn and pear are particularly attractive to flying adults, which seek out bright white flowers. Keep cane numbers under control and prune out excessive growth to keep the canopy open, as beetles are especially prevalent in shady conditions. Biennial cropping can help to avoid the pest, but only if fruiting and vegetative plantations are well separated.

Chemical Control

Sprays of pyrethrum may be used as a last resort, but effectiveness may be limited. It is best applied to control larvae just as the fruits are beginning to colour (usually before mid-June). Alternatively, it may be used to kill the adult beetles before the eggs are laid and before the flowers open, with a second application after flowering.

There are several species of aphid that affect cane fruits. Not all are economically damaging, but problems may arise if populations get out of control. Species such as the large and small raspberry aphids are important as virus vectors and are an increasing problem where they are able to overcome natural plant resistance. Several species cause crumpling or curling of leaves during the spring and summer. Severe attacks may result in premature leaf- fall, small fruit and weak canes. Foliage also becomes sticky and dirty with honeydew and sooty mould. Most species lay overwintering eggs on the host plant, hatching in March and April. Damage during early spring and summer is caused by generations of aphids feeding on developing leaves, shoots and flower trusses. All species produce winged forms (usually from May to July), most of which disperse to new canes close by. Sexual reproduction usually occurs between males and females in the autumn when overwintering eggs are laid. Eggs are deposited around leaf axils and buds of the host plants. Some common aphids that affect cane fruit are listed below:

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Summer-Fruiting Raspberries Organic

Removal of old-fruited canes from summer-fruiting raspberries, blackberries and hybrid berries should be carried out as soon as the old canes have finished cropping (July to September, depending on variety). Cutting out spent cane promptly will help the new vegetative cane to ripen properly, making it less vulnerable to cold injury during winter. Old canes can also act as a source of cane blight and cane spot. The old cane should be cut out as close to the ground as possible, without leaving snags or stubs, which will otherwise rub against newly emerging primocane the following year.

Once old-fruited cane has been removed, the best of the new cane should be selected and tied in to the wires securely to help reduce cane rocking and abrasion during the winter. The canes should only be temporarily tied in, so that they can move without rubbing against their fixings. Permanent tying-in should be carried out after the canes have hardened off, so as to prevent them shrinking and rattling against the wire. Cane tipping, to reduce the height of raspberry canes above the top wires, should be left until the canes are dormant in late winter or early spring, otherwise this may encourage early bud-break on the lower portions of the cane, which is susceptible to cold injury. They may then be shortened to 7.5cm above the top wire. Any weak, damaged, or diseased canes should also be cut out at this time. Prunings and autumn leaf litter may be shredded or pulverized in the alleyway if disease-free, otherwise plant waste material and crop debris should be removed and burnt to limit the spread of infection.

Autumn-Fruiting Raspberries

After fruiting, old cane should be left until the following spring before being cut down to the ground in February to March, before new spawn emerges. Limiting the number of canes that develop during the spring to twelve to twenty /m of row will give an earlier harvest with larger fruits.

Blackberries and Hybrid Berries

Many varieties of blackberry and hybrid berry will fruit on the same canes for several years running. Old cane may be left to crop again, but only if the canes are still green by November, are pest- and disease-free, and there is insufficient cane for the next season.

Organic Slugs and Snails Fruit

Slugs and snails can be a problem on some soil types, especially in damp areas. Straw mulches can encourage them, but they also tend to benefit natural predators such as carabid beetles. Eggs are generally laid in the soil during late summer and autumn and hatch the following late winter to early spring. There is usually one generation each year. Holes in leaves and flowers are characteristic of damage, with holes in the fruit making the crop unmarketable.

Control

Cultural prevention methods can include the use of poultry to forage for slugs and snails up until flowering. Individual slugs and snails may be picked off when seen and beer traps can be used in small problem areas. Cultivating the soil around the plants in autumn will help to expose over- wintering eggs to birds and other predators. Some biological-control companies offer nematode species to treat problem areas, although to be effective they must be used when soil temperatures are warm enough (>5°C). Slug pellets based on the active ingredient ferric phosphate, in cereal-based pellet form, are now available to organic growers.

Red Core (Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae)

This is a soil-borne disease with potential to cause plant losses on a large scale. It is a notifiable disease for propagators, but not currently notifiable for berry producers. Affected plants appear stunted and develop a dull blue-green leaf color. Roots have a characteristic 'red core' if cut open longitudinally and are affected from the root tips upward. 

Persist in the soil for well over fifteen years and is encouraged by compacted, cool, wet soil conditions. Surface water and run-off is the main method of spore dispersal, but spores can also be transmitted via infected planting material, machinery, shoes and so on. Infected plants can appear to recover partially during the summer if the weather is dry.

Nematodes

Nematodes are tiny (0.5-6mm long), worm-like creatures with needle-like mouthparts, which they use to puncture and feed from plant cells. Apart from the direct damage they cause, some species transmit viruses that debilitate the plants. Pest nematodes can be divided into two groups: those that live in the soil and feed on roots and those that are free-living and feed on aerial parts of the plant. Species of Longidorus and Xiphinema are relatively large nematodes (4-5mm long) that live in the soil. They are particularly important as vectors of various viruses, though heavy infestations of Xiphinema, the dagger nematode, can cause severe stunting and even plant death. Pratylenchus penetrans is an internal root parasite of various plants, including strawberry and raspberry. Severely infested plants show considerable stunting of roots and aerial parts, with necrotic lesions on the roots.
The stem nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci, has a wide range of host plants. On strawberry, it lives within the plant and can invade runners while they are still closely attached to the mother plant. Young plants may also become infested from the soil, where the nematodes can survive for several years in the absence of host plants. Leaves become puckered and brittle, while stems become thickened and stunted. The leaf nematodes, Aphelenchoides spp., feed externally on young tissue within the crowns, growing points and runner buds.

Upper surface of the mid-vein of developing leaves and are most numerous in spring. A mass of them can resemble cotton wool when viewed under a microscope or strong lens. Attacked leaves become puckered and distorted, while severe infestations may cause the death of developing flower clusters and can even kill the main crown.

Cultural Management and Prevention

Unfortunately, there are no organically permitted chemical treatments for nematodes or biological controls available and little can be done to treat the site once infested. Thus, it is best to use cultural methods, such as the use of clean, certified planting material, to avoid nematode problems from the outset. The land should be checked for the presence of nematodes before planting.

Stem nematodes and leaf nematodes in infested runners may be killed by a pre-planting hot water treatment. This involves immersion of the runners for seven to ten minutes in water at 46°C, but great care is needed to avoid damaging the plants. Research in Germany and the Netherlands has indicated that planting Tagetes patula can result in a decrease in numbers of Pratylenchus in the soil..

Organic Harvest Treatment And Crop Destruction

If the crop is to be grown for more than one season, it is important to give the plants some attention after harvest. The foliage should be cut off or mown to 2.5cm above the crown and the debris removed and burned to reduce the spread of diseases such as mildew and botrytis and to keep.

HARVEST

Once the berries begin to ripen, plants should be picked over at least every other day in hot weather (daily under protection) since the berries will ripen very quickly. The berries will be at their best if harvested early in the morning, before temperatures rise, and will keep well if placed into trays of dean, dry punnets and kept cool, if not refrigerated, after picking. Many large-scale growers find that sourcing enough labor to get the crop picked is the biggest headache of the growing season, so it is worth investing time and effort before the fruit is ripe, in sorting out a supply of labor for the harvest. The berries are usually picked and graded simultaneously, with pickers removing Class II and rotten fruits to keep the rows clean.

plants compact. This should be done immediately after harvest so that the plants can

begin to produce fresh leaves and build up their reserves, as the flowers for the next

year's crop start to develop by August in outdoor crops. Remove any runners that

have appeared so as to keep the crop rows clean and avoid stressing the plants.

Runner removal will promote more flowering for the following year. For vigorous

varieties such as Florence, crown thinning in August may be required to prevent the

plants becoming congested. Vigorous varieties should be thinned to three crowns

per plant. Irrigation should be applied to encourage new leaf growth. If the plants have come to the end of their cropping life, they can be removed by handand burned to reduce the risk of disease spread, or incorporated deep into the soilto prevent regrowth. If incorporated, there is a risk that diseases such as coreand Verticillium wilt will persist for longer and affect subsequent rotations, as the

plants can take a long time to break down..

Organic Crop Covers Fruits

Tunnels

In the last ten to fourteen days before harvest, cherries gain an extra 10-15 per cent in weight and change color to deep red or purple (depending on the cultivar). The fruits are at their most prone to splitting from excess moisture at this stage, so rainproof covers or tunnels are normally put up as soon as the fruits start to color. They may, however, be positioned much earlier in the year to help reduce wind, hail and frost damage to the trees, especially if trees are covered at night during the vulnerable blossom period. Plastic sheeting or closely woven plastic fabrics are normally used. Covers must be both easily removable and replaceable in order to help ventilation and assist pollination by insects. Some crop protection firms now offer covering systems specifically for cherries. Many different sizes and combinations are possible, for covering single- or multi-row bed systems using French or Spanish tunnels. Some tunnel systems come with added vertical extensions to give extra tunnel height to accommodate the trees' profile. This has the advantage of being able to be used for other crops after the fruits have been picked.

The main drawback to using tunnels is the difficulty in keeping birds nut whilst ventilating the tunnels. Most growers therefore use a combination of crop covers and bird netting. If adequate ventilation is not given, lime introduction of covers can have the disadvantage of creating high temperatures and a humid atmosphere around the trees, favourable to fruit 'moulds such as grey mould (botrytis), brown rot (Monilinia) and pests each as spider mite. Some growers decide not to use rain covers or tunnels for this reason, although they are usually considered essential for regions.

Where there is a high risk of rain during the stages of late fruit swelling and ripening and where crop quality is essential (for example, growing for supermarkets). Crop covers (and netting) also have the disadvantage of reducing light interception by the trees by 25 per cent. Some growers claim that fruit grown naturally, without covers, tastes so much better, possibly because it gets slightly more light and sun, leading to increased levels of soluble solids (mostly in the form of sugars). Conversely, growers using covers can afford to be more relaxed in the knowledge that their crop is protected from adverse weather during ripening and has the potential to improve in color and size the longer it is left on the tree.

Bird Netting

The use of bird netting is the most effective way of protecting vulnerable cherry and plum crops from birds, although other forms of bird deterrent such as bird scares and scarecrows may have some effect. Protective bird netting is best erected before flowering to protect the flowers, buds and developing soft leaves from pigeons, bullfinches and other birds that are partial to the crop. Much damage can also be done by pigeons at fruit stoning, therefore it is worth putting up nets early to avoid crop losses. Other bird species such as blackbirds and starlings are very partial to the fruit as it ripens. Many growers use a simple netting system supported by a series of poles and wires above the rows of trees. Snagging of the nets can be prevented by covering the tops of the posts with smooth polythene, or plastic pots such as old yoghurt cartons or flower pots. Netting can be erected over individual rows, multiple rows or even over a whole orchard, but should have the capacity to be easily hoisted out of the way of harvesting operations, or removed altogether. Depending on whether tunnels are used and at what time of year they are erected, the netting can either be placed on the outside of a tunnel structure or inside it. Some tunnel structures have a built-in facility to accommodate netting easily.

Orchid Fruit Cracking

Cherries

Fruit cracking or splitting in cherries is a significant problem for many growers, especially if wet weather coincides with fruit ripening in June and July. No sweet cherry variety is totally resistant to cracking, although some are less susceptible than others. Several factors are thought to cause cracking, but most researchers agree that it is probably due to the fruit skins being in contact with water for a significant period of time. Lengthy periods of wet weather, even gentle rain, are more likely to induce cracking in ripening cherries than short, sharp, showers since the fruits are in prolonged contact with wetness. Under these conditions, the fruits absorb so much water that the skins split. Differences in fruit skin (cuticle) status and thickness relating to the rate at which they absorb water and their capacity to expand have been shown to be factors in the susceptibility of different varieties to splitting. Periods of stress (for example, drought stress) during the growing period may also have a role in increasing levels of fruit cracking towards harvest.

To a lesser extent, fruit cracking may also be due to excessive uptake of water by the trees. Cherries grown on Colt rootstock tend to be more prone to cracking and fruit run-off before harvest. This is thought to be due to the rootstock's extensive root system absorbing a lot of moisture. Cherries grown on more dwarfing stocks than Colt are less prone to cracking, but, as with varieties, no rootstock is totally resistant.

Most conventional growers use rain covers during the growing season to minimize the risk of rain-induced cracking, although this is offset by the need for carefully controlled irrigation (usually in the form of trickle irrigation). Sites on gently sloping ground offer better drainage and are therefore useful for minimizing cracking naturally. Well-ventilated trees with open canopies (such as those trained to a centre-leader system) drv quicker after periods of wet weather and therefore minimize leaf and fruit wetness, which may also naturally help to reduce the incidence of cracking. Anti-cracking calcium-based sprays are often used in conventional production, but are not permitted for organic systems.

Plums, Damsons and Gages

Plums, like cherries, can be subject to cracking in wet summers, which makes them more prone to brown rot fungus and therefore unmarketable. Dessert plums are particularly prone to fruit cracking. To avoid this, covering systems similar to those used for cherries (see below) may be used during fruit ripening.

Dessert Organic Fruit And Culinary Plums

Herman (Dual Purpose) A promising very early variety that is ready for picking from mid-July. The medium-sized fruits are of excellent quality and well flavored, blue-black in color with a free stone. Fruits are similar to Czar, but slightly earlier and reputedly better flavored. Trees are compact in habit and moderately productive with resistance to sharka (plum pox virus). Self-fertile. Pollination group B.

Edda (Dual Purpose) A promising Norwegian variety that is ready in late July. Produces large, oval, dark blue-black fruits, with a good dessert flavour and excellent cooking qualities. Trees can be rather slow to crop, but are very hardy. Self-sterile. Pollination group D. Suitable pollinators include: damsons, Blaisdon Red, Denniston's Superb, Jefferson, Jubileum, Victoria, Pershore Yellow, Czar, Kentish Bush, Marjorie's Seedling, Oullin's Gage, Reeves, Utility and Opal.

Opal (Dessert) A relatively new variety, which produces high-quality dessert plums in late July to early August. The medium to large oval fruits are similar in appearance to Victoria, red-purple in color, with pale-gold, juicy flesh, an excellent sweet gage-like flavor and free stones. Trees are moderately vigorous and upright in habit, becoming heavy and reliable croppers once established and are easy to manage. Slightly resistant to bacterial canker. Very resistant to sharka. Self-fertile. Pollination group C.

Utility (Dessert) A red-purple fruited variety, which produces medium to large oblong plums in early August. The green-yellow flesh is tender, serreet and juicy, with a fair flavor. Trees are moderately vigorous .

Pollination. Proximity to a pollinator can become particularly important in periods of bad weather, when few pollinating insects are active. Although it is perfectly possible to grow only two varieties (or even one if it is a self-fertile cultivar), having a wider range of varieties in the orchard can help to extend the season and minimize the risk of whole- crop failure due to frost, pest or disease damage.

A selection of dessert, culinary and dual-purpose plum varieties is presented below, in rough order of cropping. Where possible, varieties have been selected for their suitability for organic production due to their disease resistance and/or proven reliability in the UK (under conventional systems). Most are widely available from nurseries in the UK and on the Continent. There are several promising Continental varieties listed, although their reliability in the UK (under both conventional and organic conditions) has not been established. Victoria is included as the popular industry standard, although it is a very disease-susceptible variety and is not suitable for sites prone to bacterial canker and silver leaf. For those varieties that are not self-fertile and require pollinators, several suitable pollination partners from the selection below are listed accordingly.

Fruit Thinning Organic

Depending on market requirements and in years of heavy fruit set, both apples and pears may require thinning to achieve good fruit size and regulate crop load, reducing the risk of biennial bearing. Although laborious, hand- thinning is the most reliable method and affords the grower the opportunity to inspect the crop carefully, both in terms of assessing yield and also inspecting the trees for pest and disease problems. Apples and pears should be hand- thinned after the natural 'June drop' from mid-June to the end of July, although apples should preferably be thinned before they reach 12rnm in diameter. When thinning, take off small or poor-quality fruits first and those that are shaded or on weak or one-year-old wood before thinning remaining clusters. It is advisable to thin to one or two fruits per cluster, ensuring fruits are spaced 10mm apart. On short-stalked apples, the 'king' fruit should be removed (this is generally the largest fruit and is often misshapen), leaving the next largest intact. King fruits of long-stalked varieties can be retained to crop since they are usually of good size and not misshapen.

Most varieties of apple and pear ripen in September and October, although early varieties such as Discovery require picking in August for immediate marketing (most early varieties will not store well). Storage is otherwise usually required to avoid flooding the market at harvest time and top fruit growers either have their own stores or hire storage space. For most small-scale operations, refrigerated storage will be sufficient to keep fruit in good condition for the few weeks needed, as most organic top fruit is sold off the farm by November or December. However, for growers requiring longer term storage, particularly those supplying supermarkets, the use of CA regimes is required.

It is important that the fruit is picked at the correct stage of maturity for the proposed marketing period, if it is to be stored for any length of time. Levels of starch and fruit firmness should be assessed at regular intervals, together with fruit mineral composition, starting at least a month before the anticipated harvest date. Growers may monitor their crops themselves, but may wish to employ the services of an adviser for expert guidance and access to analytical services. Greater firmness and starch levels will be required for fruit entering long-term storage, which will therefore require earlier picking. CA and ULO regimes are best used for apples destined for marketing after the middle of October, otherwise low-temperature basic air storage is sufficient for most varieties, including pears.

More details on specific storage requirements for apple varieties, together with other recommendations for storing fruits, can be found in Guidelines for the Production of Organic Apples and Pears in the UK, published by the Soil Association.

Irrigation Organic Fruits

Many growers are able to produce commercial crops of apples and pears on semi-vigorous and vigorous rootstocks without irrigation. However, trees on dwarfing rootstocks (particularly pears), are very sensitive to drought and will perform poorly in years of insufficient soil moisture and excessive competition from a grass sward. In dry years, or where there is competition from the sward, irrigation from mid-May to mid-June may be necessary to achieve good tree growth and again from mid-July to mid- August to improve fruit size in established trees. Irrigation may also be of benefit during dry autumns, to help the trees build reserves for cropping I e following year. Light or shallow soils will benefit from a 'little and often' approach to irrigation. Calculating water requirements of crops is beyond the scope of this book, but there are many companies offering professional advice on the deployment and use of irrigation to meet individual grower requirements.

Should be remedied accordingly. An application of nitrogen will usually be required early in the season before flowering, as soil microbial activity is low at this time due to low soil temperatures. Care should be taken not to over-apply nitrogen during mid-summer or late in the season, as this can lead to fruit let abscission and excessive vegetative growth, which will be disease-prone, together with soft sappy wood that does not lignify properly before winter, thus reducing winter-hardiness. An over-application of nitrogen, whilst often resulting in increased yield, can also lead to deterioration in fruit eating quality and storage potential in apples, although pears are less affected.

Additional nitrogen and potash are often required during the growing season, especially where mulches are not used. However, applying additional fertilizers to trees growing directly in a grass sward may do nothing more than feed the grass, therefore foliar feeds, applied shortly after petal fall while leaves are still young but well developed, are often of benefit. Where trees are growing in a pure grass stand (or where the sward is predominantly grass), the sward should be kept short in order to minimize competition for water and nutrients during critical periods of fruit swelling and ripening. Otherwise, swards containing mixed species such as clovers may be allowed to flower, which will encourage beneficial insects. Keeping the sward under control before harvest will aid picking, although it is often difficult to mow around trees that have heavily laden and drooping branches.

Soil fertility and crop nutrition (together with symptoms of nutrient deficiency) are discussed further in Chapter 2. Full guidance on the satisfactory nutrient ranges for plant nutrients can be obtained from Defra: Fertiliser Recommendations for Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (RB209), Seventh Edition (2000), 'Section 6: Fruit, Vines and Hops'. Although based on conventional production, the figures give a good indication of the optimum levels of nutrients required.

Spur and Tip-Bearing Varieties Fruits Organic

Most varieties of apple and pear are spur bearers, producing most of their fruit on short spurs, which form on older wood. A few varieties, such as Worcester Permian, are tip bearers, producing most of their fruit on the tips of new wood formed the previous season. Varieties such as Bramley and Discovery are partial tip bearers, producing fruits on both spurs and tips. When growing trees from a maiden whip, both tip and spur bearers are started in the same way, but are treated slightly differently from the third year onwards.

TREE FORMS

Commercially, many growers use centre-leader or open-centre (bush) tree forms for apple and pear production. However, a variety of other tree forms exist, including pyramid and spindlebush forms, or variations on these, suitable for trees on dwarfing rootstocks planted at high density. Those on vigorous rootstocks have traditionally been grown as half- standard or standard tree forms.

PRUNING

There are many excellent texts detailing the pruning of apples and pears, and more comprehensive instructions on the general aspects of pruning may be found elsewhere. For simplicity, the main principles of pruning open-centre (bush) and centre-leader tree forms are discussed below, as these systems of training suit most commercial situations for trees on semi-dwarfing rootstocks. They are ideal for organic growers since both methods of training allow good light penetration and airflow around the lives, which helps to discourage diseases such as scab. Such trees are also easy to manage, requiring minimal pruning after establishment.

Apples and pears may be pruned in the same manner for the tree forms outlined below, unless indicated otherwise. Pear trees are usually slower to come into cropping than apples, although, once established, pears can tolerate harder pruning and, unlike apples, will not respond to hard pruning with the production of unwanted suckers or water shoots. Pruning can be carried out at any time during the dormant period after leaf fall (from November to March), but is most easily done in late winter, when the difference between vegetative and fruiting buds is most obvious. Unwanted prunings may be raked up and burned (although a licence is needed from the Environment Agency to burn prunings on your own holding), or else they may be shredded or pulverized and returned to the crop row to provide nutrients, ensuring that diseased material has been removed completely.

These spurs may need thinning out as the branch becomes older. Only limited pruning is required for tip bearers and the majority of shoots formed the previous year, 23cm or less in length, can be left unprunedLonger shoots are spur-pruned (as above) to prevent crowding and to help stimulate the formation of more tip-bearing shoots. Tipping back the branch leaders by three or four buds will also help to promote the production of more tip-bearing laterals. Partial tip-bearing varieties require only light spur pruning.

Artificial hives may be introduced if required Fruit

To achieve good fruit size if over-pollination results in a high fruit set. If in doubt, it is better to provide the maximum number of colonies for pollination rather than the minimum since an overset can always be corrected by thinning and fruit losses to pests and diseases in organic systems are anyway likely to be quite high. In protected cropping, it is important to roll back the covers and open tunnel doors to allow pollinating insects access to the plantation during flowering.

If natural bee numbers are low, and it is not possible to introduce honeybee hives, many bio-control companies now offer artificial bumblebee colonies for both outdoor and protected production. It is now possible to obtain artificial nests for red mason bees to encourage the species into the area. Native red mason bees are very effective pollinators of fruit crops since they forage within a much broader temperature range than honey bees. They also have the advantage of not being susceptible to varroa mite.

 In advance of the orchard or fruit plantation, so that adequate shelter is provided during crop establishment. Most common windbreak species such as poplar, alder and evergreens can be planted in single rows 1.8m apart, although closer spacing of 0.6-1.2m apart may be used where rapid development and maximum shelter is required quickly. The windbreak may later be thinned by removing alternate trees. Single rows of trees are generally less attractive to troublesome bird species such as bullfinches.

As a general rule, windbreaks and shelterbelts should have a permeability of around 50 per cent during the season when protection is required and a good windbreak of moderate density should be able to reduce wind speed over a distance of up to twenty times its height on its leeward side, provided the site is moderately level (the greatest reduction in wind speed occurring at four to eight times the height of the windbreak). Dense windbreaks are undesirable since they restrict the flow of air through the orchard or plantation and, more importantly, can increase the risk of frost damage in certain situations. In most cases, windbreaks sited at right angles to the prevailing south-west wind will provide the best form of protection, although those sited against cold spring winds from the north and east may be more desirable in other situations. Growers should assess their own site carefully in order to decide on windbreak placement to protect their crop at its most sensitive stage. Care should be taken not to site windbreaks where they will assist in the creation of frost pockets — cold air must be allowed to drain freely from the site without impediment. If placement of a windbreak across a sloping site is unavoidable, the base of the trees or bushes should be trimmed to allow cold air to move through effectively so that a frost pocket does not develop.

Bash Fruits Organic

Bush fruits do not compete well with weeds, so crop rows should be kept weed-free if possible during the growing season. The simplest option is to use geotextile and organic mulches (see above). Crops such as blueberries will appreciate regular applications of bark chippings or compost to help maintain a low soil pH. Crop rows can also be lightly forked or hoed and any perennial weeds removed by hand. Mechanical cultivation may also be possible according to plant type and growing system. Cultivations should be no deeper than 5cm to avoid damaging too many surface-feeding soots. This is particularly important for crops such as blackcurrants, which are relatively shallow rooting.

Many strawberry growers use a thick straw mulch for weed control. This should be laid between the beds once flowering is under way, but before the berries have set. If laid any earlier, there is a risk that it can delay soil warming since covering the soil with straw will delay harvest by a week or two and also has the effect of locking up and delaying the release of nitrogen in the spring. Some growers practice 'deep strawing' of established plants of vigorous varieties in their second or third year. This is achieved by applying the straw in February, while soil temperatures are low, to deliberately delay the crop and extend the season. Straw is very effective at suppressing weeds (both in the crop alleyways and within plant rows in the absence of plastic mulch), although large perennial weeds may need to be removed by hand or by flame weeding. Berries and plants are kept clean since there is less rain-splashed soil and dust to contaminate the fruit and the straw is comfortable for pickers. Using straw as a mulch also has the advantage of encouraging earthworms (which are important for breaking down crop debris lying on the soil surface) and consequently improving soil drainage. One of the disadvantages of using straw is that it must be disposed of at the end of the crop's life. Usually, the only practical solution is to incorporate it, although this can take several passes with machinery and can also cause subsequent nutrient lockup as the straw decays.

Mechanical weed control is possible between the rows where the strawberries are planted in single rows without polythene mulch. This can be achieved through the use of brush weeders, finger weeders and rotary or rolling cultivators.

Easily mulched with organic material to suppress weed development, or simply hand-weeded around the base of the canes. Mulching with manure or compost can aggravate Phytophthora root-rot problems on susceptible raspberry varieties growing on heavy and wet day soils, although improving soil drainage and growing plants on raised beds or ridges will help to alleviate the problem. Geotextile mulches such as woven plastic can be used for weed suppression, but must be slit sufficiently to allow the emergence of young primo canes in spring.

IENVIRONMENT STEWARDSHIP ORGANIC FRUIT

Wm' der the new, EU-approved, Rural Development Programme  for England (2007-2013), the old Organic Farming Scheme (OFS), Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS) and the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme have now been replaced by a new agrientrkurffnent  scheme: 'Environment Stewardship'. This new stewardship inhales’ an Entry Level Stewardship (ELS), an Organic Entry Levelwarships  (OELS) and a Higher Level Stewardship (HLS). Of most iimievest to organic producers, the Organic Entry Level Stewardship is gamed to organic and organic /conventional mixed farming systems and &Mews the same format as the old Organic Farming Scheme. It is available assisting organic farmers and land owners, as well as producers entering

Land into conversion, as a five-year agreement, with payments sent out every six months. The OELS is a non-competitive scheme, which means that provided all the requirements (based on a points system) for stewardship have been met, a basic payment rate of £60 per hectare is available for all organic land entered into the scheme. Aid for converting conventionally farmed improved land and established top fruit orchards (planted with pears, plums, cherries and apples, excluding cider apples) is also available as a top-up to OELS payments. This is currently set at £175 per hectare per year for two years for improved land and £600 per hectare per year for three years for established top fruit orchards.

To apply for Organic Entry Level Stewardship, producers must first register their land with an organic certification body. Producers must also demonstrate that they can achieve a certain number of points related to the area of their farm by carrying out specified environmental management options (for example, provision of beetle banks, buffer strips, pollen and nectar mixtures, hedgerow management and so on). These are listed in the OELS handbook (available from Natural England). To qualify for the conversion payments, producers must apply to the OELS within twelve months from the date of registration with an organic certification body. Farmers with both organic and conventional land can apply for OELS on their OELS-eligible land and ELS on the remainder at the applicable ELS payment rates as part of one, whole-farm OELS agreement. If farms are already in the ELS, it will be necessary to cancel the existing ELS agreement, then apply for the OELS.

Weeds In Organic Fruit

ADVICE

Free organic conversion advice is available under a service (the Organic Conversion Information Service or OCIS) provided by Natural England and delivered by the Organic Research Centre — Elm Farm. The service aims to help farmers and land managers in England consider the practical implications of converting their business to organic production. It comprises a national helpline (which will provide initial advice and a comprehensive information pack), a dedicated website and a free on- farm advisory visit service that will supplement the initial advice provided, subject to eligibility. ocisOrganic Centre Wales also runs a technical helpline. Helpline officers can answer questions on organic food and farming and register growers for the Organic Conversion Information Service (OCIS Wales). OCIS Wales.

a free service, funded by the Welsh Assembly Government, and aims to provide farmers with the information they need to make an informed decision about whether to convert. It includes an information pack and up too two on-farm advisory visits from experienced advisers from ADAS and the Organic Advisory Service. The new Farming Connect service (available from September 2008) will pay 50 per cent of the cost of a whole-farm plan (80 per cent if the producer is under forty). For producers in conversion this means it can be used to develop a comprehensive plan to get though the conversion period and beyond. In addition, it will also help to meet the requirements of the organic certification bodies and support applications to the Organic Farming Scheme and other agri-environment scheme such as Tir Cynnal and Tir Gofal.

In Scotland, the Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) operates an organic helpline which is designed to assist Scottish farmers who are interested in angering to organic and to advise farmers who have already converted. I ne telephone advice is also available from local SAC Consultancy Offices and from a number of SAC subject specialists.

In Northern Ireland, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development offers advice on organic production, although the organic Ibenen,g scheme here has recently closed. For information on organic pro4iection in Northern Ireland, contact:OCIS Northern Ireland (Market gardening): 028 9442 6765 OCIS Northern Ireland (Field scale production): 028 9442 6683 www_ruralni.gov.uk/bussys/organic/index.htm

Under the new Environmental Stewardship scheme, organic growers

England and those entering conversion are eligible to apply for payments under the Organic Entry Level Stewardship, run by Defray *le below).

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SWAMP ROSE MALLOW WILD FLOWERS

Also known as Mallow Rose or Wild Cotton, this species is a tall plant with canelike stems reaching a height of six feet. The large ovate leaves are entire except for the lower ones, which may be lobed. The flowers are unusually large, sometimes reaching a diameter of six inches; in color the petals vary from white to cream, with red or crimson bases. Swamp Rose Mallow thrives in brackish as well as freshwater swamps, where the extensive "meadows" of these beautiful flowers make an arresting sight. Swamp Rose Mallow can be found from southern New England to Michigan, southward to Florida and Alabama; the flowers appear in July, and continue blossoming until September.

COMMON MALLOW       

All of the mallows of the genus MaIva found in the United States are European plants which have escaped from cultivation and established themselves near dwellings and along roadsides. The Common Mallow, called Cheeses by children, is a trailing or erect annual with heart-shaped but lobed leaves and flowers clustered in the leaf axils. The calyx of each lower is surrounded by an outer cup of three leaf like bracts; the regular corolla consists of five petals. It can be found throughout the United States, and flowers from June to September. The still more common species, Malva neglecta, has more rounded lobes on its leaves.

MUSK MALLOW    PLATE

This is a larger perennial plant, with stems up to two feet in height; its leaves are conspicuously and deeply lobed into narrow segments. The musk- scented flowers are clustered amid the leaves at the top of the plant. Musk Mallow flowers, essentially similar to those of the other mallows, have petals which are distinctly notched at the apex. Its range is from New England to Maryland, west to Nebraska; the flowers appear in June and July.

MARSHMALLOW

This inhabitant of either freshwater or brackish marshes is also a European immigrant which has made itself at home from Connecticut to Virginia. It is a rank-growing herbaceous perennial with stems up to six feet in height. The ovate leaves are somewhat three-lobed with conspicuous venation. Marshmallow flowers are pink or white, up to two inches in diameter with a number of narrow bracts beneath the calyx. The stamens form the usual column around the pistil and are united with the base of the petals. The flowering period is from July through October. The root of this species was the source of the original mucilaginous_ material known as marshmallow paste.

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